Lung Cancer

What is lung cancer?

Cancer of the lung, like all cancers, results from an abnormality in the body's basic unit of life, the cell. Normally, the body maintains a system of checks and balances on cell growth so that cells divide to produce new cells only when new cells are needed. Disruption of this system of checks and balances on cell growth results in an uncontrolled division and proliferation of cells that eventually forms a mass known as a tumor.


Tumors can be benign or malignant; when we speak of "cancer," we are referring to those tumors that are malignant. Benign tumors usually can be removed and do not spread to other parts of the body. Malignant tumors, on the other hand, grow aggressively and invade other tissues of the body, allowing entry of tumor cells into the bloodstream or lymphatic system and then to other sites in the body. This process of spread is termed metastasis; the areas of tumor growth at these distant sites are called metastases. Since lung cancer tends to spread or metastasize very early after it forms, it is a very life-threatening cancer and one of the most difficult cancers to treat. While lung cancer can spread to any organ in the body, certain organs -- particularly the adrenal glands, liver, brain, and bone -- are the most common sites for lung cancer metastasis.

The lung also is a very common site for metastasis from tumors in other parts of the body. Tumor metastases are made up of the same type of cells as the original (primary) tumor. For example, if prostate cancer spreads via the bloodstream to the lungs, it is metastatic prostate cancer in the lung and is not lung cancer.

The principal function of the lungs is to exchange gases between the air we breathe and the blood. Through the lung, carbon dioxide is removed from the bloodstream and oxygen from inspired air enters the bloodstream. The right lung has three lobes, while the left lung is divided into two lobes and a small structure called the lingula that is the equivalent of the middle lobe on the right. The major airways entering the lungs are the bronchi, which arise from the trachea. The bronchi branch into progressively smaller airways called bronchioles that end in tiny sacs known as alveoli where gas exchange occurs. The lungs and chest wall are covered with a thin layer of tissue called the pleura.

Lung cancers can arise in any part of the lung, but 90%-95% of cancers of the lung are thought to arise from the epithelial cells, the cells lining the larger and smaller airways (bronchi and bronchioles); for this reason, lung cancers are sometimes called bronchogenic cancers or bronchogenic carcinomas. (Carcinoma is another term for cancer.) Cancers also can arise from the pleura (called mesotheliomas) or rarely from supporting tissues within the lungs, for example, the blood vessels.


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Prostate

It is common for the prostate gland to become enlarged as a man ages. Doctors call this condition benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), or benign prostatic hypertrophy.

As a man matures, the prostate goes through two main periods of growth. The first occurs early in puberty, when the prostate doubles in size. At around age 25, the gland begins to grow again. This second growth phase often results, years later, in BPH.

Though the prostate continues to grow during most of a man's life, the enlargement doesn't usually cause problems until late in life. BPH rarely causes symptoms before age 40, but more than half of men in their sixties and as many as 90 percent in their seventies and eighties have some symptoms of BPH.

As the prostate enlarges, the layer of tissue surrounding it stops it from expanding, causing the gland to press against the urethra like a clamp on a garden hose. The bladder wall becomes thicker and irritable. The bladder begins to contract even when it contains small amounts of urine, causing more frequent urination. Eventually, the bladder weakens and loses the ability to empty itself, so some of the urine remains in the bladder. The narrowing of the urethra and partial emptying of the bladder cause many of the problems associated with BPH.

Many people feel uncomfortable talking about the prostate, since the gland plays a role in both sex and urination. Still, prostate enlargement is as common a part of aging as gray hair. As life expectancy rises, so does the occurrence of BPH. In the United States in 2000, there were 4.5 million visits to physicians for BPH.

Why BPH Occurs
The cause of BPH is not well understood. No definite information on risk factors exists. For centuries, it has been known that BPH occurs mainly in older men and that it doesn't develop in men whose testes were removed before puberty. For this reason, some researchers believe that factors related to aging and the testes may spur the development of BPH.

Throughout their lives, men produce both testosterone, an important male hormone, and small amounts of estrogen, a female hormone. As men age, the amount of active testosterone in the blood decreases, leaving a higher proportion of estrogen. Studies done on animals have suggested that BPH may occur because the higher amount of estrogen within the gland increases the activity of substances that promote cell growth.

Another theory focuses on dihydrotestosterone (DHT), a substance derived from testosterone in the prostate, which may help control its growth. Most animals lose their ability to produce DHT as they age. However, some research has indicated that even with a drop in the blood's testosterone level, older men continue to produce and accumulate high levels of DHT in the prostate. This accumulation of DHT may encourage the growth of cells. Scientists have also noted that men who do not produce DHT do not develop BPH.

Some researchers suggest that BPH may develop as a result of “instructions” given to cells early in life. According to this theory, BPH occurs because cells in one section of the gland follow these instructions and “reawaken” later in life. These “reawakened” cells then deliver signals to other cells in the gland, instructing them to grow or making them more sensitive to hormones that influence growth.

Symptoms
Many symptoms of BPH stem from obstruction of the urethra and gradual loss of bladder function, which results in incomplete emptying of the bladder. The symptoms of BPH vary, but the most common ones involve changes or problems with urination, such as

•a hesitant, interrupted, weak stream
•urgency and leaking or dribbling
•more frequent urination, especially at night
The size of the prostate does not always determine how severe the obstruction or the symptoms will be. Some men with greatly enlarged glands have little obstruction and few symptoms while others, whose glands are less enlarged, have more blockage and greater problems.

Sometimes a man may not know he has any obstruction until he suddenly finds himself unable to urinate at all. This condition, called acute urinary retention, may be triggered by taking over-the-counter cold or allergy medicines. Such medicines contain a decongestant drug, known as a sympathomimetic. A potential side effect of this drug may prevent the bladder opening from relaxing and allowing urine to empty. When partial obstruction is present, urinary retention also can be brought on by alcohol, cold temperatures, or a long period of immobility.

It is important to tell your doctor about urinary problems such as those described above. In eight out of 10 cases, these symptoms suggest BPH, but they also can signal other, more serious conditions that require prompt treatment. These conditions, including prostate cancer, can be ruled out only by a doctor's examination.

Severe BPH can cause serious problems over time. Urine retention and strain on the bladder can lead to urinary tract infections, bladder or kidney damage, bladder stones, and incontinence—the inability to control urination. If the bladder is permanently damaged, treatment for BPH may be ineffective. When BPH is found in its earlier stages, there is a lower risk of developing such complications.

Diagnosis
You may first notice symptoms of BPH yourself, or your doctor may find that your prostate is enlarged during a routine checkup. When BPH is suspected, you may be referred to a urologist, a doctor who specializes in problems of the urinary tract and the male reproductive system. Several tests help the doctor identify the problem and decide whether surgery is needed. The tests vary from patient to patient, but the following are the most common.

Digital Rectal Examination (DRE)
This examination is usually the first test done. The doctor inserts a gloved finger into the rectum and feels the part of the prostate next to the rectum. This examination gives the doctor a general idea of the size and condition of the gland.

Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA) Blood Test
To rule out cancer as a cause of urinary symptoms, your doctor may recommend a PSA blood test. PSA, a protein produced by prostate cells, is frequently present at elevated levels in the blood of men who have prostate cancer. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved a PSA test for use in conjunction with a digital rectal examination to help detect prostate cancer in men who are age 50 or older and for monitoring men with prostate cancer after treatment. However, much remains unknown about the interpretation of PSA levels, the test's ability to discriminate cancer from benign prostate conditions, and the best course of action following a finding of elevated PSA.


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Stroke

A stroke is a serious medical condition that occurs when the blood supply to part of the brain is cut off.

Like all organs, the brain needs the oxygen and nutrients provided by blood to function properly. If the supply of blood is restricted or stopped, brain cells begin to die. This can lead to brain damage and possibly death.

Strokes are a medical emergency and prompt treatment is essential because the sooner a person receives treatment for a stroke, the less damage is likely to happen.


Types of stroke
There are two main causes of strokes:

•ischaemic (accounting for over 80% of all cases): the blood supply is stopped due to a blood clot
•haemorrhagic: a weakened blood vessel supplying the brain bursts and causes brain damage
There is also a related condition known as a transient ischaemic attack (TIA), where the supply of blood to the brain is temporarily interrupted, causing a 'mini-stroke'. TIAs should be treated seriously as they are often a warning sign that a stroke is coming.

Who is at risk from stroke?
In England, strokes are a major health problem. Every year over 150,000 people have a stroke and it is the third largest cause of death, after heart disease and cancer. The brain damage caused by strokes means that they are the largest cause of adult disability in the UK.

People who are over 65 years of age are most at risk from having strokes, although 25% of strokes occur in people who are under 65. It is also possible for children to have strokes.

If you are south Asian, African or Caribbean, your risk of stroke is higher. This is partly because of a predisposition (a natural tendency) to developing diabetes and heart disease, which are two conditions that can cause strokes.

Smoking, being overweight, lack of exercise and a poor diet are also risk factors for stroke. Also, conditions that affect the circulation of the blood, such as high blood pressure, high cholesterol, atrial fibrillation (an irregular heartbeat) and diabetes, increase your risk of having a stroke.

Strokes can be treated and prevented
Strokes can usually be successfully treated and also prevented. Eating a healthy diet, taking regular exercise, drinking alcohol in moderation and not smoking will dramatically reduce your risk of having a stroke. Lowering high blood pressure and cholesterol levels with medication also lowers the risk of stroke substantially.

See the prevention section for more information about reducing the risk of having a stroke.

Strokes can be treated using a combination of medicines and, in some cases, surgery.

However, many people will require a long period of rehabilitation after a stroke and not all will recover fully.


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Diabetes

what is diabetes
There are now over 20.8 million people with diabetes in United States alone. And it is continuously growing. Diabetes or diabetes mellitus is a disorder in which blood sugar (glucose) levels are abnormally high because the body does not produce enough insulin.

Insulin, a hormone released from the pancreas, controls the amount of sugar in the blood. When a person eats or drinks, food is broken down into materials, including sugar, that the body needs to function normally. Sugar is absorbed into the bloodstream and stimulates the pancreas to produce insulin. Insulin allows sugar to move from the blood into the cells, once inside the cells, sugar is converted to energy. Which is either used immediately or stored until it is used.

If the body does not produce enough insulin to move the sugar into the cells, the resulting high levels of sugar in the blood and the inadequate amount of sugar in the cells together produce the symptoms and complications of diabetes.

types of diabetes
Type 1 Diabetes
Is an autoimmune disease that occurs when T cells attack and decimate the beta cells in the pancreas that are needed to produce insulin. The pancreas makes too little insulin (or no insulin). Without the capacity to make adequate amounts of insulin, the body is not able to metabolize blood glucose (sugar), and toxic acids (called ketoacids) build up in the body. There is a genetic predisposition to type 1 diabetes.

The disease tends to occur in childhood, adolescence or early adulthood (before age 30) but it may have its clinical onset at any age. The symptoms and signs of type 1 diabetes characteristically appear abruptly, although the damage to the beta cells may begin much earlier and progress slowly and silently.

Type 2 Diabetes
Is the type in which the beta cells of the pancreas produce insulin but the body is unable to use it effectively because the cells of the body are resistant to the action of insulin. Although this type of diabetes may not carry the same risk of death from ketoacidosis, it otherwise involves many of the same risks of complications as does type 1 diabetes (in which there is a lack of insulin).






signs and symptoms of diabetes
The signs and symptoms of type 1 diabetes often appear after a flu-like illness and gradually intensify over the course of a few weeks. Typical symptom may include:

•Increased thirst and frequent urination. This diabetes symptom is common with type 1 diabetes, excess sugar (glucose) builds up in your bloodstream. A high level of blood glucose pulls water from your body's tissues, making you thirsty. As a result, a symptom of thirst or you drink more fluids and urinate more. The excess sugar in your bloodstream passes through your kidneys and leaves your body in your urine.
•Extreme hunger. Another diabetes symptom of type 1 diabetes is extreme hunger. Because of inability to produce insulin, the hormone necessary for glucose to enter cells and fuel their functions — leaves your muscles and organs energy depleted. A symptom of hunger makes you feel like eating more until your stomach is full, but the hunger persists because, without insulin, the glucose produced from dietary carbohydrates never reaches your body's energy-starved tissues.
•Weight loss. Despite eating a lot to relieve their constant hunger, another diabetes symptom of people with type 1 diabetes is rapid lose of weight. That's because the body's cells are deprived of glucose and energy, as glucose is lost into the urine. Without the energy glucose supplies, cells die at an increased rate before they can divide and replace themselves. Muscle tissues and fat stores shrink, and body weight declines.
•Blurred vision. Another diabetes symptom is blurred vision. A high level of blood glucose pulls fluid from all your tissues, including the lenses of your eyes. The decrease in fluid affects your ability to focus.
•Fatigue. A diabetes symptom that occures when your cells are deprived of glucose, you become tired and irritable.
Type 2 diabetes has the same symptom as that of type 1 diabetes but may include these symptom

•Slow-healing sores or frequent infections. This diabetes symptom affects your body's ability to heal and fight infection. Bladder and vaginal infections can be a particular problem for women.
•Nerve damage (neuropathy) . This diabetes symptom is due to excess sugar in your blood that can damage the small blood vessels to your nerves. Symptom may include tingling and loss of sensation in your hands and feet, as well as burning pain in your arms, hands, legs and feet
•Red, swollen, tender gums . This diabetes symptom is due to the infection in your gums and in the bones that hold your teeth in place. Your gums may pull away from your teeth, your teeth may become loose, or you may develop sores or pockets of pus in your gums — especially if you have a gum infection before diabetes develops.




Diabetes Treatment and Diabetes Management
To control and manage type 1 diabetes, you need to inject insulin regularly – up to eight times per day. You must also test your blood sugar frequently, using a home blood-sugar monitor. You use that information, in consultation with your doctor to regulate your insulin dosage, diet and exercise

Treatment of type 2 diabetes also starts with home blood-sugar monitor testing. But only a fraction of people with type 2 diabetes need insulin injections. Most can be controlled with blood sugar dietary changes, regular exercise and oral medications.

If you are diagnosed with type 1 diabetes or type 2 diabetes, you should definitely must be under doctor’s care and management. And you should never stop using your medications or injections, or alter your dosage, without your doctor’s approval.

To enjoy a healthier lifestyle even if you are afflicted with diabetes, you may follow some simple suggestions using blended medicine. Though the following suggestions are more tailored for type 2 diabetes..


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Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer’s disease is an irreversible, progressive brain disease that slowly destroys memory and thinking skills, and eventually even the ability to carry out the simplest tasks. In most people with Alzheimer’s, symptoms first appear after age 60.

Alzheimer’s disease is the most common cause of dementia among older people. Dementia is the loss of cognitive functioning—thinking, remembering, and reasoning—to such an extent that it interferes with a person’s daily life and activities. Estimates vary, but experts suggest that as many as 5.1 million Americans may have Alzheimer’s.

Alzheimer’s disease is named after Dr. Alois Alzheimer. In 1906, Dr. Alzheimer noticed changes in the brain tissue of a woman who had died of an unusual mental illness. Her symptoms included memory loss, language problems, and unpredictable behavior. After she died, he examined her brain and found many abnormal clumps (now called amyloid plaques) and tangled bundles of fibers (now called neurofibrillary tangles). Plaques and tangles in the brain are two of the main features of Alzheimer’s disease. The third is the loss of connections between nerve cells (neurons) in the brain.

Very Early Signs and Symptoms...
Memory problems are one of the first signs of Alzheimer’s disease. Some people with memory problems have a condition called amnestic mild cognitive impairment (MCI). People with this condition have more memory problems than normal for people their age, but their symptoms are not as severe as those with Alzheimer’s. More people with MCI, compared with those without MCI, go on to develop Alzheimer’s.

Other changes may also signal the very early stages of Alzheimer’s disease. For example, brain imaging and biomarker studies of people with MCI and those with a family history of Alzheimer’s are beginning to detect early changes in the brain like those seen in Alzheimer’s. These findings will need to be confirmed by other studies but appear promising. Other recent research has found links between some movement difficulties and MCI. Researchers also have seen links between some problems with the sense of smell and cognitive problems. Such findings offer hope that some day we may have tools that could help detect Alzheimer’s early, track the course of the disease, and monitor response to treatments.

Mild Alzheimer’s Disease
As Alzheimer’s disease progresses, memory loss continues and changes in other cognitive abilities appear. Problems can include getting lost, trouble handling money and paying bills, repeating questions, taking longer to complete normal daily tasks, poor judgment, and small mood and personality changes. People often are diagnosed in this stage.

Moderate Alzheimer’s Disease
In this stage, damage occurs in areas of the brain that control language, reasoning, sensory processing, and conscious thought. Memory loss and confusion increase, and people begin to have problems recognizing family and friends. They may be unable to learn new things, carry out tasks that involve multiple steps (such as getting dressed), or cope with new situations. They may have hallucinations, delusions, and paranoia, and may behave impulsively.

Severe Alzheimer’s Disease
By the final stage, plaques and tangles have spread throughout the brain and brain tissue has shrunk significantly. People with severe Alzheimer’s cannot communicate and are completely dependent on others for their care. Near the end, the person may be in bed most or all of the time as the body shuts down.



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Appendicitis and Appendectomy

What is the appendix?

The appendix is a closed-ended, narrow tube up to several inches in length that attaches to the cecum (the first part of the colon) like a worm. (The anatomical name for the appendix, vermiform appendix, means worm-like appendage.) The inner lining of the appendix produces a small amount of mucus that flows through the open center of the appendix and into the cecum. The wall of the appendix contains lymphatic tissue that is part of the immune system for making antibodies. Like the rest of the colon, the wall of the appendix also contains a layer of muscle, but the layer of muscle is poorly developed.


What is appendicitis and what causes appendicitis?

Appendicitis means inflammation of the appendix. It is thought that appendicitis begins when the opening from the appendix into the cecum becomes blocked. The blockage may be due to a build-up of thick mucus within the appendix or to stool that enters the appendix from the cecum. The mucus or stool hardens, becomes rock-like, and blocks the opening. This rock is called a fecalith (literally, a rock of stool). At other times, the lymphatic tissue in the appendix might swell and block the appendix. After the blockage occurs, bacteria which normally are found within the appendix begin to invade (infect) the wall of the appendix. The body responds to the invasion by mounting an attack on the bacteria, an attack called inflammation. An alternative theory for the cause of appendicitis is an initial rupture of the appendix followed by spread of bacteria outside of the appendix. The cause of such a rupture is unclear, but it may relate to changes that occur in the lymphatic tissue, for example, inflammation, that lines the wall of the appendix.)

If the inflammation and infection spread through the wall of the appendix, the appendix can rupture. After rupture, infection can spread throughout the abdomen; however, it usually is confined to a small area surrounding the appendix (forming a peri-appendiceal abscess).

Sometimes, the body is successful in containing ("healing") the appendicitis without surgical treatment if the infection and accompanying inflammation do not spread throughout the abdomen. The inflammation, pain and symptoms may disappear. This is particularly true in elderly patients and when antibiotics are used. The patients then may come to the doctor long after the episode of appendicitis with a lump or a mass in the right lower abdomen that is due to the scarring that occurs during healing. This lump might raise the suspicion of cancer.

What are the complications of appendicitis?

The most frequent complication of appendicitis is perforation. Perforation of the appendix can lead to a periappendiceal abscess (a collection of infected pus) or diffuse peritonitis (infection of the entire lining of the abdomen and the pelvis). The major reason for appendiceal perforation is delay in diagnosis and treatment. In general, the longer the delay between diagnosis and surgery, the more likely is perforation. The risk of perforation 36 hours after the onset of symptoms is at least 15%. Therefore, once appendicitis is diagnosed, surgery should be done without unnecessary delay.

A less common complication of appendicitis is blockage of the intestine. Blockage occurs when the inflammation surrounding the appendix causes the intestinal muscle to stop working, and this prevents the intestinal contents from passing. If the intestine above the blockage begins to fill with liquid and gas, the abdomen distends and nausea and vomiting may occur. It then may be necessary to drain the contents of the intestine through a tube passed through the nose and esophagus and into the stomach and intestine.

A feared complication of appendicitis is sepsis, a condition in which infecting bacteria enter the blood and travel to other parts of the body. This is a very serious, even life-threatening complication. Fortunately, it occurs infrequently.




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liver cirrhosis

What is cirrhosis?
Cirrhosis is a condition in which the liver slowly deteriorates and malfunctions due to chronic injury. Scar tissue replaces healthy liver tissue, partially blocking the flow of blood through the liver. Scarring also impairs the liver’s ability to


•control infections
•remove bacteria and toxins from the blood
•process nutrients, hormones, and drugs
•make proteins that regulate blood clotting
•produce bile to help absorb fats—including cholesterol—and fat-soluble vitamins
A healthy liver is able to regenerate most of its own cells when they become damaged. With end-stage cirrhosis, the liver can no longer effectively replace damaged cells. A healthy liver is necessary for survival.


The liver and digestive system.

Cirrhosis is the twelfth leading cause of death by disease, accounting for 27,000 deaths each year.1 The condition affects men slightly more often than women

What causes cirrhosis?
Cirrhosis has various causes. In the United States, heavy alcohol consumption and chronic hepatitis C have been the most common causes of cirrhosis. Obesity is becoming a common cause of cirrhosis, either as the sole cause or in combination with alcohol, hepatitis C, or both. Many people with cirrhosis have more than one cause of liver damage.

Cirrhosis is not caused by trauma to the liver or other acute, or short-term, causes of damage. Usually years of chronic injury are required to cause cirrhosis.

Alcohol-related liver disease. Most people who consume alcohol do not suffer damage to the liver. But heavy alcohol use over several years can cause chronic injury to the liver. The amount of alcohol it takes to damage the liver varies greatly from person to person. For women, consuming two to three drinks—including beer and wine—per day and for men, three to four drinks per day, can lead to liver damage and cirrhosis. In the past, alcohol-related cirrhosis led to more deaths than cirrhosis due to any other cause. Deaths caused by obesity-related cirrhosis are increasing.

Chronic hepatitis C. The hepatitis C virus is a liver infection that is spread by contact with an infected person’s blood. Chronic hepatitis C causes inflammation and damage to the liver over time that can lead to cirrhosis.

Chronic hepatitis B and D. The hepatitis B virus is a liver infection that is spread by contact with an infected person’s blood, semen, or other body fluid. Hepatitis B, like hepatitis C, causes liver inflammation and injury that can lead to cirrhosis. The hepatitis B vaccine is given to all infants and many adults to prevent the virus. Hepatitis D is another virus that infects the liver and can lead to cirrhosis, but it occurs only in people who already have hepatitis B.

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). In NAFLD, fat builds up in the liver and eventually causes cirrhosis. This increasingly common liver disease is associated with obesity, diabetes, protein malnutrition, coronary artery disease, and corticosteroid medications.

Autoimmune hepatitis. This form of hepatitis is caused by the body’s immune system attacking liver cells and causing inflammation, damage, and eventually cirrhosis. Researchers believe genetic factors may make some people more prone to autoimmune diseases. About 70 percent of those with autoimmune hepatitis are female.

Diseases that damage or destroy bile ducts. Several different diseases can damage or destroy the ducts that carry bile from the liver, causing bile to back up in the liver and leading to cirrhosis. In adults, the most common condition in this category is primary biliary cirrhosis, a disease in which the bile ducts become inflamed and damaged and, ultimately, disappear. Secondary biliary cirrhosis can happen if the ducts are mistakenly tied off or injured during gallbladder surgery. Primary sclerosing cholangitis is another condition that causes damage and scarring of bile ducts. In infants, damaged bile ducts are commonly caused by Alagille syndrome or biliary atresia, conditions in which the ducts are absent or injured.

Inherited diseases. Cystic fibrosis, alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency, hemochromatosis, Wilson disease, galactosemia, and glycogen storage diseases are inherited diseases that interfere with how the liver produces, processes, and stores enzymes, proteins, metals, and other substances the body needs to function properly. Cirrhosis can result from these conditions.

Drugs, toxins, and infections. Other causes of cirrhosis include drug reactions, prolonged exposure to toxic chemicals, parasitic infections, and repeated bouts of heart failure with liver congestion.

What are the symptoms of cirrhosis?
Many people with cirrhosis have no symptoms in the early stages of the disease. However, as the disease progresses, a person may experience the following symptoms:

•weakness
•fatigue
•loss of appetite
•nausea
•vomiting
•weight loss
•abdominal pain and bloating when fluid accumulates in the abdomen
•itching
•spiderlike blood vessels on the skin



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Men's Health Testicular Cancer

 

Testicular cancer forms in a man's testicles, the two egg-shaped glands that produce sperm and testosterone. Testicular cancer mainly affects young men between the ages of 20 and 39. It is also more common in men who

• Have had abnormal testicle development
• Have had an undescended testicle
• Have a family history of the cancer

Symptoms include pain, swelling or lumps in your testicles or groin area. Most cases can be treated, especially if it is found early. Treatment options include surgery, radiation and/or chemotherapy. Regular exams after treatment are important. Treatments may also cause infertility. If you may want children later on, you should consider sperm banking before treatment.

NIH: National Cancer Institute

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Chronic kidney disease

Chronic kidney disease
Chronic kidney disease occurs when one suffers from gradual and usually permanent loss of kidney function over time. This happens gradually, usually months to years. Chronic kidney disease is divided into five stages of increasing severity (see Table 1 below). The term "renal" refers to the kidney, so another name for kidney failure is "renal failure." Mild kidney disease is often called renal insufficiency.
With loss of kidney function, there is an accumulation of water; waste; and toxic substances, in the body, that are normally excreted by the kidney. Loss of kidney function also causes other problems such as anemia, high blood pressure, acidosis (excessive acidity of body fluids), disorders of cholesterol and fatty acids, and bone disease.


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Vagina Examintaion

Here's How:

1. You will need a strong light such as a flashlight, a mirror, a vaginal lubricant, antiseptic soap or alcohol, and a plastic speculum (get a speculum from a pharmacy that sells medical supplies).
2. Find a place to relax. This can be the floor or your couch, wherever you can feel comfortable.
3. Lie back.
4.  
5. Bend your knees, with your feet wide apart.
6. Lubricate the speculum, and insert it into your vagina in the closed position. Experiment to find the most comfortable position for inserting the speculum.
7. Once the speculum is inserted, grab the shorter section of the handle and firmly pull it toward you until it opens inside your vagina.
8. Push down on the outside section until you hear a click, while keeping a firm hold on the speculum. The speculum is now locked in place.
9. Place the mirror at your feet so that you can see your vagina. Move the speculum, while shining the flashlight into the mirror, until you can see your cervix and vaginal walls in the mirror.
10. Take note of the color of your cervix, as well as any vaginal secretions.
11. Remove the speculum, after your examination is complete, either in the closed or open position whichever is most comfortable for you.
12. Thoroughly wash the speculum with antiseptic soap or alcohol and store for your next self exam.

Tips:

1. Speculums are available at pharmacies that sell medical supplies.
2. Some women may find it easier to have a friend or partner help by holding the mirror. The normal cervix appears wet, pinkish, and has a bulb shape. The cervix of pregnant women has a bluish tint.
3. Vaginal secretions change through out the month. Understanding the changes your body goes through can help you detect your fertile periods, as well as abnormalities.
4. Vaginal self exam is neither recommended, nor valuable for detecting abnormal cervical cells that are detectable only by having regular Pap smears. _{Source: "Our Bodies, Our Selves." The Boston Women's Health Collective.}

What You Need:

• plastic speculum
• flashlight
• mirror
• vaginal lubricant
• antiseptic soap or alcohol

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For Women

Women and men have many of the same health problems, but they can affect women differently. For example, women may have different symptoms of heart disease. Some diseases or conditions are more common in women, such as osteoarthritis, obesity and depression. And some conditions, such as menopause and pregnancy, are unique to women.
Women sometimes neglect their own health and focus instead on their partner's and their children's. Take care of yourself first:

• Plan for pregnancies and see your healthcare provider regularly while you are pregnant
• Have regular mammograms
• Get regular checkups and screenings. Early detection is important for treating breast, cervical, uterine and ovarian cancer.

Pregnancy:
If you are trying to have a baby or are just thinking about it, it is not too early to prepare for a safe pregnancy and a healthy baby. You should speak with your healthcare provider about preconception care.
Preconception care is care you receive before you get pregnant. It involves finding and taking care of any problems that might affect you and your baby later, like diabetes or high blood pressure. It also involves steps you can take to reduce the risk of birth defects and other problems. For example, you should take folic acid supplements to prevent neural tube defects.
By taking action on health issues before pregnancy, you can prevent many future problems for yourself and your baby. Once you're pregnant, you’ll get prenatal care until your baby is born.


Mammography:
A mammogram is a special type of X-ray of the breasts. Mammograms can show tumors long before they are big enough for you or your health care provider to feel. They are recommended for women who have symptoms of breast cancer or who have a high risk of the disease. You and your health care provider should discuss when to start having mammograms and how often to get one.
Mammograms are quick and easy. You stand in front of an X-ray machine. The person who takes the X-rays places your breast between two plastic plates. The plates press your breast and make it flat. This may be uncomfortable, but it helps get a clear picture. You will have an X-ray of each breast. A mammogram takes only a few seconds and it can help save your life.

Menopause: 
Menopause is the time in a woman's life when her period stops. It usually occurs naturally, most often after age 45. Menopause happens because the woman's ovary stops producing the hormones estrogen and progesterone.
A woman has reached menopause when she has not had a period for one year. Changes and symptoms can start several years earlier. They include

• A change in periods - shorter or longer, lighter or heavier, with more or less time in between
• Hot flashes and/or night sweats
• Trouble sleeping
• Vaginal dryness
• Mood swings
• Trouble focusing
• Less hair on head, more on face

Some symptoms require treatment. Talk to your doctor about how to best manage menopause. Make sure the doctor knows your medical history and your family medical history. This includes whether you are at risk for heart disease, osteoporosis, or breast cancer.

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Breast Cancer

I may have breast cancer, what questions should I ask my doctor?

If you have received a positive or possible diagnosis of breast cancer, there are a number of questions that you can ask your doctor. The answers you receive to these questions should give you a better understanding of your specific diagnosis and the corresponding treatment. It is usually helpful to write your questions down before you meet with your health-care provider. This gives you the opportunity to ask all your questions in an organized fashion.
Each question is followed by a brief explanation as to why that particular question is important. We will not attempt to answer these questions in detail here because each individual case is just that, individual. This outline is designed to provide a framework to help you and your family make certain that most of the important questions in breast cancer diagnosis and treatment have been addressed. As cancer treatments are constantly evolving, specific recommendations and treatments might change and you should always confer with your treatment team regarding any questions.

Is the doctor sure I have breast cancer?

Certain types of cancer are relatively easy to identify by standard microscopic evaluation of the tissue. This is generally true for the most common types of breast cancer.
However, as the search for earlier and rarer forms of breast cancer progresses, it can be difficult to be certain that a particular group of cells is malignant (cancerous). At the same time, benign conditions may have cells which are somewhat distorted in appearance or pattern of growth (known as atypical cells or atypical hyperplasia). For this reason, it is important that the pathologist reading the slides of your breast biopsy be experienced in breast pathology. Most good pathology groups have multiple pathologists review questionable or troublesome slides. In more difficult cases, the slides will often be sent to recognized specialists with considerable expertise in breast pathology.


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BRAIN CANCER : a story and a patient....

 

Hometown: Born in Kitchener Ontario but now I call Calgary Home
What school did/do you attend? University of Waterloo
Do you work? Currently on treatment -- hopefully returning to work Spring 2011
What is your career goal(s)? To be able to return to my former position as a Director at the University of Calgary



How did you find out you were sick? What event(s) led to the diagnosis?



In Fall of 2008 I fell into a very apathetic depression. Wasn’t interested in doing anything other than watching TV. However I thought it was something to do with my motivation, so I started seeing a counselor and a personal trainer to re-energize. In February 2009, I started getting mild headaches which was odd for me, as I never get headaches. In fact a colleague actually told me that I should monitor them because she thought it was so strange that I was complaining of headache. But I wasn’t eating well and stress at work was high, so I figured it was lifestyle rather than something more serious. Additionally I started having some dizziness that was most prevalent when I was skiing. One day when skiing I came off the chair lift and complained to my boyfriend that I had vertigo. Visibility was poor and we were about to attempt a steep hill and he knew I was nervous. We both assumed that my “vertigo” was more in mind trying to make an excuse on why I shouldn’t try the steep terrain rather than a true dizzy spell. He encouraged me to focus on my turns and away we went.
In March 2009, the headaches got progressively worse. I would wake up with my hands on my head in the morning the pain was so bad. They would cause me to be late for work if I could even get in at all. When I did get in, it was really challenging for me to focus on things that previously really interested me and I started to isolate in my office. My depression had worsened and between that and my headaches I spent most of my free time on the couch. In April I begrudgingly went to my family doctor (GP) to discuss my depression and headaches. I still assumed it was my poor lifestyle but I thought maybe he could help. He sent me for blood work which came back showing nothing out the ordinary. He didn’t want to put me on medication but rather suggested I make positive changes to my lifestyle and if the headaches and depression didn’t improve to come back.
I spent the next four days in bed with a headache and missed two more days of work. On the second day I missed, my boyfriend told me to get a second opinion. So I took myself to a walk in clinic where the doctor did a field test and gave me the same advice that my GP had given me four days previous. However, she did refer me for an outpatient CT just in case. The three days I went to work, however, on Thursday April 22, after spending 45 minutes in a bathroom stall trying to relieve a headache I conceded I was too sick to be at work and went home. Friday, April 23, I woke up to the worst pain of my life. I was supposed to fly out that evening to Kelowna to attend a meditation/retreat weekend I thought would relieve my headaches and depression. That morning I went for a massage and then went for an expensive haircut. I came home and crashed into bed. An hour later I started vomiting. My boyfriend, thank goodness, was off work that day and immediately said, “That’s it we are going to the hospital.”
He took me to Emergency where within two hours I had a CAT scan. An hour later the doctor returned to tell me that I had an approximately seven centimetre growth in my right frontal lobe. I was admitted to hospital that evening. The next morning I had an MRI and that afternoon I was told I would need brain surgery. I had my brain surgery on Friday, May 1, and on Thursday, May 7, I was told that I have brain cancer.
What year was it? What was your age at the time? I was diagnosed on May 7, 2009, and I was 32.
At what level of education were you at diagnosis? I had completed a Bachelors of Arts from the University of Waterloo
What was your diagnosis? Grade IV Glioblastoma -- Brain cancer
What were your first thoughts when diagnosed?
I was fairly unaffected, I think largely because I went into shock and I didn’t really comprehend the severity of diagnosis. Although the oncologist used words like “incurable,” in my mind the words “incurable cancer” did not exist. Although rationally I knew that cancer has not been cured, I never thought I could have such a serious diagnosis. For some reason I felt like I couldn’t be that “special.” I am grateful that I am a naturally optimistic person which continues to help me through this difficult diagnosis. Although I know there is no cure for what I have, I am optimistic that if I can stick around long enough new treatments will be discovered. The thought that I can beat cancer was (and continues to be) always at the top of my mind in the early weeks of diagnosis.
How did your family react?
They were devastated. My mom is also a cancer survivor, 15 years, and my grandfather (my mom’s father) died of a Grade III Brain Tumour in 1999, so to go through this again, it is extremely challenging on my family. However after the initial reaction, they saw how optimistic I am and they have also tried to change their mindset and support me in the way I wished to be supported, which is to not ignore the disease, but not let it be the focus of our lives.
How did your friends react? Were you treated any different?
I am so blessed to have a number of close friends who support me. I was overwhelmed by the number of cards, flowers, gifts, and emails that I received from friends, many of whom I have not spoken with in years. Especially for my closest groups of girlfriends, my diagnosis brought us closer together. They immediately rallied around me in to support me, and unequivocally the response was always “I am so sorry, but if anyone can beat this, You Can!” That inspiration just helps me stay positive. The only way I was treated differently, was that friends that I hadn’t spoke to in years took the time to reconnect, or moreover attend a party in May 2009 in Ontario to show their support of me in my cancer journey.
What did your treatment consist of?
Treatment is intense and includes three phases
Phase 1: Surgery to remove as much of the tumour as possible.
Phase 2: Concurrent Radiation and low dose chemo therapy. I completed 30 days of radiation, five days a week for six weeks and 42 consecutive days of chemo
Phase 3: Up to 12 months of higher dose chemo therapy, five nights a month. I take the chemo in pill form five evenings a month. As long as my White Blood Cell Count stays high and my MRI scans continue to be clear I will continue treatment for up to one year. I started in August 2009 and am scheduled to finish in July 2010.
I am grateful that side effects for all the treatment have been “minor” at least compared to what I know other cancer survivors go through. I did lose some hair during radiation, but it is growing back, unfortunately even the gray hairs. The anti-nausea works very well with my chemo and I have very little nausea during chemo. Fatigue is the largest side effect which comes and go but typically does not inhibit me from completing my day to day activities.
In which Hospital(s) are you treated? I am being treated by the incredible team at Tom Baker Cancer Centre in Calgary, Alberta.
What is your current medical status? I have cancer and am currently in treatment. All MRIs since diagnosis have shown no new growth since May 2009.
How is life different for you now post diagnosis (physically, emotionally, socially, spiritually)?
I have become a better version of myself since diagnosis. I am lucky to have strong benefits and low living expenses, which have allowed me to take time off work as I go through treatment. I have used that time to fully commit to my health. I have changed my diet and make exercise a high priority everyday which has not only helped me maintained a strong quality of health during treatment, but I have also lost 20 lbs and friends and colleagues tell me I have never looked better. I have fallen in love with yoga and also am learning to practice meditation which has helped improved my sleep and has improved the way I handle stress. I have found a new hobby in writing and started a website to share my journey and also explore this new creative outlet. I appreciate more completely how important I am in peoples’ lives and have worked to strengthen important relationships by spending quality time with them often. Finally I feel I am learning to be in the moment, being grateful for the gifts that I have been given, which allows me to truly live my most authentic life.
What is the toughest part of your challenge?
The finality of my diagnosis. There is a 99 per cent rate of recurrence even with successful treatment. However I have seen several examples of people with my condition going 10 or 15 years without a recurrence. You never know what could happen during that 10 to 15 years, what new treatments could come along to extend survivor rates or even cure brain cancer. However just like I don’t know when my recurrence will happen, I don’t know if a cure or new treatments will be found in time. Consequently when thinking about big plans, investing in a masters to advance my career, saving for retirement, having a family, I am caught in this paradox of not wanting to put my life on hold while I wait for cure with using resources like time and money to travel or have experiences in the time I have rather than investing them in long term dreams that I might not live long enough to realize.
What is the best part about having your challenge?
The opportunity I have been given to invest in myself, my health, my relationships, my values. To have time to spend time with myself and understand what the legacy is that I want to leave with my life.
What really motivates you to keep going while you are sick?
The people who love and care about me: my family, my friends, the messages from strangers and former colleagues. I know that I mean a lot to a lot of people and that my strength in this journey can inspire strength in others -- this is what keeps me going.
What lessons or messages have you taken away from your experience? Too many to list, it’s what I write about each month on my website. But I think the largest theme is that you gotta take care of yourself, treat yourself with patience and kindness and appreciate the huge gifts you can offer to the world, then give these gifts away with all your heart.
What are your thoughts and feelings about your illness now? How have they changed since before your diagnosis? It is what it is. I think I have become more aware of the severity and unfortunately the finality of my diagnosis. However I work hard to stay focused on the positive things that this journey will offer me and work hard to “walk the walk” in terms being authentic and genuine in my actions and choices.
What are some (if there are any you know of) preventative measures that people can take to lower their risk of having an experience like yours?
One of the best books I have read on Cancer is Anti-Cancer, which on the cover has the quote “All of us have cancer cells in our bodies but not all of us will develop cancer.” After the research and reading I have done, I believe this statement fully. I believe that genetically we are all prone to cancer. With my cancer, I know I was born with a genetic predisposition to get this disease. However I feel that my lifestyle prior to cancer, foods I ate, inconsistent exercise, and most importantly the amount of stress I allowed in my life, accelerated the disease for me. The research is pretty sound that with positive and consistent changes to your diet, making daily exercise a priority, practicing stress reduction techniques like meditation and yoga as well as eating and using organic and chemical free products can help people keep their cancer cells in check. I would recommend that if you don’t want to get cancer, adopt an anti-cancer lifestyle before a diagnosis.
Did you attend any support groups during your challenge? No
If you did not attend a support group, why?
People who typically have my diagnosis are 55 to 75-year-old men. Additionally the way I have responded to treatment, so positively, I didn’t feel that I would gain much from attending a support group where I couldn’t relate to the other participants who are so much older and who may be in a tough position with their journey. I guess because things right now are so going very well all things considered, I didn’t see what I would gain from facing my greatest fears head on, at least not right now.
How are you connected with Young Adult Cancer Canada?
I am attending my first retreat at the end of May 2010 and I have no doubt that I will quickly become involved with this as my main support group. I think that I will gain more from meeting people my own age who are going through a cancer journey, even if they have a different type of cancer, than from a support group of brain cancer only that are at a different stage of life.

Posted on May 04, 2010 - 05:30 AM

If you are interested in connecting with Alyson Woloshyn please email connect@youngadultcancer.ca.


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BRAIN CANCER/TUMOR and it;s Fact

1. The most common brain tumors are cancers from other parts of the body (e.g. lung, breast, colon or prostate) that spreads to the brain.
2. Primary brain tumors originate in the brain and there are over 126 such tumors listed by WHO.
3. Glioma is the commonest primary brain tumour and originates from supporting brain cells that are called glial cells and 50% of all brain tumors begin as benign tumors.
4. Another brain tumour called ‘Astrocytomas’ are so named because their cells look like stars ; the word ‘astro’ in Latin means "star".




5. A primary brain tumour usually is restricted to brain and does not spread to other organs. If brain death occurs in these patients, it is possible to donate their organs.
6. In most instances the cause of brain tumor is not known and they do not discriminate among gender, class or ethnicity.
7. Each year approximately 200,000 people in the United States are diagnosed with metastatic or primary brain tumor.
8. Common symptoms of a brain tumor include headaches, seizures, personality changes, eye weakness, nausea or vomiting, speech disturbances, memory loss.
9. The survival from brain tumor at five years is approximately 30%.
10. Brain tumors can be treated by surgery, radiation therapy, stereotactic radiotherapy, chemotherapy or by using these in combination. The most important issue when treating these patients, besides trying to cure

them, is to ensure that the quality of life is not compromised.


Read more: Top Ten Facts About Brain Tumors http://www.medindia.net/health_statistics/health_facts/brain-tumors-facts.htm#ixzz15OIZDfHA

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Teen Sexual Activity Facts

Remember freedom of choice about sex also includes saying No to sex. All the listed facts send out only one message - girls in their teens should say No to sex.
1. Four in ten girls who had their first intercourse at the age of 13 or 14 years reported that it was either forced or non-voluntary or unwanted.

2. By 15 years about 13% of teens have had sexual intercourse.

3. By the time they reach 19 years 7 out of 10 teens have had sexual intercourse at least once.

4. The chance of becoming pregnant within a year if not using a condom is much higher (90%) among the teens than others.

5. Nearly a third of all teen pregnancies end up in abortion.

6. There were 214,750 abortions in 2002 in the United States among 15-19-year-olds.

7. The highest rates of teen pregnancy in the developed world happen in United States and the annual cost of such pregnancies is $ 7 billion.

8. The babies of teenage mothers have lower birth weights and are more likely to perform poorly in school. They are also likely to be at greater risk of abuse and neglect.

9. The chances of the son of a teenage mother ending up in prison (13% more likely) or their daughter becoming pregnant (22%) is more likely than normal.

10. Of the 18.9 million new cases of STIs (syphilis, gonorrhoea, Chlamydia, trichomoniasis, Human papillomavirus -HPV infections) each year almost 48% or 9.1 million occur among 15-24-year-olds. 

References
 1. Abma JC et al., Teenagers in the United States: sexual activity, contraceptive use, and childbearing, 2002, Vital and Health Statistics, 2004, Series 23, No. 24.
2. Abma JC et al., Teenagers in the United States: sexual activity, contraceptive use, and childbearing, 2002, Vital and Health Statistics, 2004, Series 23, No. 24.
3.  Harlap S, Kost K and Forrest JD, Preventing Pregnancy, Protecting Health: A New Look at Birth Control Choices in the United States, New York: AGI, 1991.
4.  Guttmacher Institute, U.S. Teenage Pregnancy Statistics: National and State Trends and Trends by Race and Ethnicity, <http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/2006/09/11/USTPstats.pdf>, accessed Sept. 12, 2006.
5. National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy. (1997). Whatever Happened to Childhood? The Problem of Teen Pregnancy in the United States. Washington, DC: Author.
6.  http://www.who.int/docstore/hiv/GRSTI/002.htm


Read more: Teen Sexual Activity Facts http://www.medindia.net/health_statistics/health_facts/teen-sex-activity-facts.htm#ixzz15OJXvsmV

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VAGINISMUS

Simply put, the so-called condition refers to an instance when a woman's muscles in the vagina clamp down on a man's penis so firmly that they lock inseparably in sexual intercourse.
Penis captivus is said to be common among animals (such as dogs), but not humans. The so-called condition may have a "largely hearsay" existence in medical history but is "not entirely mythical," a study by the British Medical Journal (BMJ) showed.

"Such a reaction cannot be dismissed offhand as impossible. It is theoretically quite possible. Yet it does not seem to have occurred in the past 100 years or so," BMJ said in the study, which was released in 1979.
BMJ continued, "If there had been, during that time, a case of penis captivus that needed medical intervention or admission to hospital it would have been eagerly reported in a medical journal with as much detail and evidence as possible. It is in the absence of any such reports which suggests that penis captivus is not only a rare but also a relatively transient symptom with consequences that are less than sensational than those fabricated by rumor."
 



Still, penis captivus is not an acceptable condition to some, if not most people.
What is quite common, however, is vaginismus, defined by American sexual health expert Dr. Laura Berman as the "involuntary spasms of vaginal muscles that make intercourse painful, or even impossible."
In other words, muscles involuntary clench as a "defense mechanism" when something is about to be inserted into the vagina -- whether it be a penis, a tampon or equipment for vaginal ultrasound.
"Too many times, women and their partners assume that a lack of desire is all that's wrong. In fact, many women with vaginismus want to have sex with their partners, but find their bodies won't cooperate," Berman wrote in an article at everydayhealth.com.
A common condition
Vaginismus is considered a common condition across the globe. A website, for one, was created solely to provide information about it.
The website, called vaginismus-center.com, was created by HKS or Hera Women's Health Center, a "boutique type" women's health center in Turkey.
"Vaginismus is not just your problem, but it is a sexual dysfunction that is frequently encountered all around the world. According to the results of a research conducted by CETAD (Sexual Education Treatment and Research Association), vaginismus rate in Turkey is 10%. Thus, one person out of every 10 is unable to experience full intercourse during a sexual relation or experience it with a lot of pain," the website read.
Among the symptoms of vaginismus, according to HKS, are the following:
- being afraid of sexual intercourse with her partner and not being able to try to have intercourse (penetration at all)
- having partial sexual intercourse (only a part of the penis can enter the vagina)
- not being able to insert pads or tampons into the vagina
- not being able to insert a finger into the vagina
- not being able to enter vaginal ultrasound instrument
- wincing and fearing gynecological examinations and not being able to take the gynecologist's examination seat.
Berman, a best-selling author and is considered as one of America's leading experts in female sexual health, noted that vaginismus may be a result of "long-standing genital pain or dysfunction in the pelvic floor muscles," or past trauma, where "intercourse becomes associated with painful memories or a fear of losing control."
"Some women experience vaginismus throughout their entire lives -- precluding any successful intercourse -- while others find it emerges after they have had a satisfying sex life. Whatever the case, the pain and distress it causes women and their partners is real," she wrote.
Body and mind
According to Berman, the solution to vaginismus lies in its sources -- the body and the mind. More specifically, she said it's all about learning to control vaginal muscles.
"The key is recognizing the difference between tension and relaxation in the pelvic floor," she wrote.
She recommended therapy if the patient has problems of sexual discomfort, as well as the use of weighted vaginal exercisers and kegel exercises, which involve the clench and release of urine flow. (To know more about kegel exercises, click here.)
Berman stressed, however, that it's still best consult a medical expert so the condition can be more properly treated.
"Women who think they may be suffering from vaginismus should see their ob-gyn and get tested for any possible vaginal infections or STDs (sexually transmitted diseases)," she wrote.

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Abnormal discharge from vagina or penis

Symptoms and indications:

Early symptoms include enlargement of lymph glands and spleen, fever, fatigue, bruising and bleeding easily, Thrush-type infections, diarrhoea and weight loss, dermatitis and respiratory illnesses. Later, a person develops further serious infections or cancers. These include herpes infections, pneumonia, meningitis, serious gastrointestinal disorders (e.g. salmonella infections), Kaposi's sarcoma and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. A number of illnesses may occur, some of which are particularly associated with Aids and are known as "Aids indicator conditions".

 

 

Treatment: The symptoms of Aids-related infections can be alleviated with appropriate drug treatments, if not entirely cured. other drugs, such as dideoxyinosine and zidovudine, may be helpful, and many other preparations are helpful depending on the nature of the symptoms.

Persons most commonly affected: All age groups and both sexes but affected infants acquire the condition at birth from mothers who have Aids.

GONORRHOEA

Symptoms and indications: In Men: Burning pain on passing urine, which is cloudy and may contain pus, thick yellowish-green discharge from the penis (gleet), enlargement of glands in the groin. If untreated, fibrous tissue may form causing narrowing of the urethra and difficulty in passing urine. There may be pains in the joints and other organs, the bladder, testicles and prostate gland may become inflamed and tender.

In Women: Women may have fewer symptoms than men and these include yellowish-green vaginal discharge (gleet), burning pain on passing urine, which may contain pus. Also the Bartholin's glands (which are sited near the opening of the vagina) often become ulcerated and inflamed. If untreated, the infection and inflammation spreads to the main reproductive organs, the womb, Fallopian tubes and ovaries. The damage is likely to cause infertility and other long-term problems, and occasionally, life threatening peritonitis from an infected Fallopian tube. A person showing any symptoms of gonorrhoea or who has cause for concern should consult a doctor immediately.

Treatment: The patient is usually referred to a hospital clinic specializing in venereal diseases, and diagnosis is confirmed by examination of a sample of the discharge. Treatment is usually very effective through the taking of penicillin, sulphonamides or tetracycline, and can be cured within one or two weeks. The person may need checks for a few more weeks to make sure that the infection has totally cleared. During the course of treatment, the person should refrain from sexual activity, be scrupulous in personal hygiene and not share towels etc. The person should wash the hands frequently and especially avoid rubbing or touching the eyes. Sexual partners should be informed.

Persons most commonly affected: Young adults of both sexes but can affect any age group.

NON-SPECIFIC URETHRITIS (NSU)

Symptoms and indications: Men: Discomfort and pain in the urethra, mild pain on urination, increased frequency of urination and slight or more profuse discharge. The urethra is red and inflamed. Symptoms vary from mild to more severe.

Women: There may be few or no symptoms but, if they do occur, include pain on urination, frequency of urination and pain in the pelvic region. Also vaginal discharge, which may be yellowish and thick, and pain during sexual intercourse.

Treatment: Diagnosis requires bacteriological examination of urethral sample or urine to exclude other causes of infection, such as Gonorrhoea. Treatment is by means of antibiotics including tetracycline, doxycycline or erythromycin, usually for one week, but longer if infection persists or if complications arise. Patients should refrain from sexual intercourse and are usually given a follow-up examination to ensure that the infection has cleared.

Persons most commonly affected: Sexually active adults of both sexes.

VAGINITIS

Symptoms and indications: Symptoms include vaginal discharge that may be thick, discoloured (yellow or greenish) or white and can be foul-smelling. Also, itching of the skin or burning in the region of the vulva, reddening, discomfort and pain. The symptoms may vary in severity, depending upon the cause of the condition. A person with symptoms of vaginitis should seek medical advice.

Treatment: Depends upon the cause, which is established by means of a physical examination and discussion, and may involve obtaining a swab so that infective organisms can be cultured. Treatment for inflammation without infection may be by means of soothing creams or anti-inflammatory preparations such as hydrocortisone. Bacterial infections are treated with appropriate antibiotics such as doxycycline erythromycin and metronidazole, which is also used for infections caused by the parasite Trichomonas. If the cause is Candida, treatment is by means of miconazole or clotrimazole. In older, postmenopausal women, in whom the vaginitis may be atrophic (due to the thinning of tissues, with or without infection) the treatment is usually hormone replacement therapy with oestrogen. The condition can usually be successfully treated.

Persons most commonly affected: Females of all age groups, depending on cause.

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